The economic system is the cornerstone of social development. Its economic system has remained at the root of the progressive development of human civilization. A country, society or caste; Social, political and cultural upliftment is mainly based on the progress of its economic resources and facilities. In a country without these facilities,…[Read more]

The diagram depicts some ways in which faculty and staff development offerings are essential components in the discovery and charting of various pathways to intellectual leadership. Such opportunities facilitate and help to map potential paths made of stepping stones and milestones on the way to the horizon. Faculty and staff development…[Read more]

Latin America continued to experience social, economic and political turmoil in 2021. The vulnerabilities set by preexisting conditions such as persistent inequality, a high level of labour force participation in the informal economy, and exclusionary social protection systems have been exacerbated by recent health and humanitarian crises that are…[Read more]

A foreign exchange swap or currency swap is a contract under which two parties agree to exchange two currencies at a set rate and then to re-exchange those currencies at an agreed upon rate at a fixed date in the future. Therefore, an FX swap consists of two transactions: a spot transaction and a forward transaction.

A currency option or FX option is a contract that gives the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a certain currency at a specified exchange rate on or before a specified date. Currency options are one of the most common ways for corporations, individuals or financial institutions to hedge against adverse movements in exchange rates.

A currency future, also known as an FX future , is a future contract to exchange one currency for another at a specified date in the future at an exchange rate that is fixed on the purchase date. By using a currency future contract, the parties are able to effectively lock-in the exchange rate for a future transaction. Speculation and hedging in…[Read more]

आपल्या देशाने 27 जानेवारी 1950 रोजी लोकशाहीचा स्वीकार केला. बहुमताने लोकप्रतिनिधींना निवडून त्यांनी गठीत केलेली शासनप्रणाली हीच राजकीय लोकशाही होय. राजकीय लोकशाहीचा पाया जर सामाजिक लोकशाहीचा नसेल तर ती टिकूच शकणार नाही. गौतम बुद्धाचे तत्त्वज्ञान स्वातंत्र्य, समता, बंधुत्व व न्याय ही मूल्ये प्रदान करतात. या शिवाय संपूर्ण मानवाच्या विक…[Read more]

A currency forward or FX forward contract is an agreement that allows the buyer to lock in an exchange rate the day on which the agreement is signed for a transaction that will be completed later. Forward contracts are one of the main methods used to hedge against exchange rate volatility, as they avoid the impact of currency fluctuation over the…[Read more]

An FX Asian option or Asian currency option is a special type of option contract where the payoff depends on the average of the underlying exchange rates over a certain period of time. The payoff is different from the case of a European option or American option, where the payoff of the option contract depends on the underlying FX rate at exercise date.

A floating coupon note is a very flexible and generic funding product. The issuer pays the buyer periodic floating coupons based on a spread-adjusted reference rate, such as LIBOR. The buyer pays an upfront fee to the issuer. Also, the buyer pays the issuer a notional amount at inception and the issuer returns it upon cancellation or maturity of the deal.

Zero coupon bonds are issued at a deep discount and repaid the face value at maturity. The greater the length of the maturity is the cheaper price a bond has. Unlike other bonds, the investor’s return is the difference between the purchase price and the face value. An investor preferring a long-term investment may purchase zero coupon bonds such a…[Read more]

A puttable bond is a bond in which the investor has the right to sell the bond back to the issuer at specified times for a specified price. At each puttable date prior to the bond maturity, the investor may get the investment money back by selling the bond back to the issuer. The underlying bonds can be fixed rate bonds or floating rate bonds. A…[Read more]

Inflation indexed bonds, also called inflation linked bonds or real return bonds, are bonds where the principal is indexed to inflation or deflation on a daily basis in terms of a reference index, such as Consumer Price Index (CPI). The CPI is the proxy for inflation that measures price changes in a basket of goods and services.

A floating rate note has variable coupons, depending on a money market reference rate, such as LIBOR, plus a floating spread. When interest rate raises, the coupons of an FRN increases in line with the increase of the forward rates, which means its price remains relatively constant. Therefore, FRNs bear small interest rate risk. On the other hand,…[Read more]

A callable bond is a bond in which the issuer has the right to call the bond at specified times from the investor for a specified price. At each callable date prior to the bond maturity, the issuer may recall the bond from its investor by returning the investor’s money. The underlying bonds can be fixed rate bonds or floating rate bonds. A c…[Read more]

A bond future option is an option contract that gives the holder the right but not the obligation to buy or sell a bond future at a predetermined price. The writer/seller receives a premium from the buyer for undertaking this obligation. Options are leveraged instruments that allow the owner to control a large amount of the underlying asset with a…[Read more]

A bond future is a future contract in which the asset for delivery is a government bond. Any government bonds that meet the maturity specification of a future contract are eligible for delivery. All eligible delivery bonds construct the delivery basket where each bond has its own conversion factor. Conversion factors are used to equalise the…[Read more]

A bond is a debt instrument in which an investor loans money to the issuer for a defined period of time and receives coupons paid by the issuer at fixed interest rate. The bond principal will be returned at maturity date. Bonds are usually issued by companies, municipalities, states/provinces and countries to finance a variety of projects and activities.

An amortizing bond is a bond whose principal (face value) decreases due to repaying part of the principal along with the coupon payments. Each payment to the amortizing bond holder consists of a portion of interest and a portion of principal. While an accreting bond is a bond whose principal increases during the life of the deal. Each payment to…[Read more]

Dire, globally high doctoral attrition rates are the result of competing impediments to the success of a doctoral aspirant who is unprepared to consistently produce scholarly doctoral-level writing, lacking the in the theoretical, philosophical, and intellectual training needed to think logically and metacognitively assimilate vast quantities of…[Read more]